Culture Anglo-Saxons

1 culture

1.1 architecture
1.2 art
1.3 language
1.4 kinship
1.5 law
1.6 literature
1.7 symbolism

culture
architecture


reconstruction of anglo-saxon royal palace @ cheddar around 1000

early anglo-saxon buildings in britain simple, not using masonry except in foundations constructed using timber thatch roofing. preferring not settle within old roman cities, anglo-saxons built small towns near centres of agriculture, @ fords in rivers or sited serve ports. in each town, main hall in centre, provided central hearth.

only ten of hundreds of settlement sites have been excavated in england period have revealed masonry domestic structures , confined few quite specific contexts. usual explanation tendency of anglo–saxons build in timber 1 of technological inferiority or incompetence. accepted technology , materials part of conscious choices indivisible social meaning. le goff, suggests anglo-saxon period defined use of wood, providing evidence care , craftsmanship anglo–saxon invested wooden material culture, cups halls, , concern trees , timber in anglo–saxon place–names, literature , religion. michael shapland suggests:

the stone buildings imposed on england romans have been startling , exceptional , , following collapse of roman society in fifth century there widespread return timber building, cultural shift not possible explain recourse technological determinism.

anglo–saxon building forms part of general building tradition. timber natural building medium of age : anglo–saxon word building timbe . unlike in carolingian world, late anglo–saxon royal halls continued of timber in manner of yeavering centuries before, though king have mustered resources build in stone. preference must have been conscious choice, perhaps expression of deeply–embedded germanic identity on part of anglo–saxon royalty.

the major rural buildings sunken-floor (grubenhäuser) or post-hole buildings, although helena hamerow suggest distinction less clear. elite had simple buildings, central fire , hole in roof let smoke escape , largest of had more 1 floor, , 1 room. buildings vary in size, square or rectangular, though round houses have been found. these buildings have sunken floors; shallow pit on plank floor suspended. pit may have been used storage, more filled straw winter insulation. variation on sunken floor design found in towns, basement may deep 9 feet, suggesting storage or work area below suspended floor. common design simple post framing, heavy posts set directly ground, supporting roof. space between posts filled in wattle , daub, or occasionally, planks. floors packed earth, though planks used. roofing materials varied, thatch being common, though turf , wooden shingles used.

distinctive anglo-saxon pilaster strips on tower of saints church, earls barton

stone used, , used, build churches. bede makes clear in both ecclesiastical history , historiam abbatum masonry construction of churches, including own @ jarrow, undertaken morem romanorum, in manner of romans, in explicit contrast existing traditions of timber construction. @ canterbury, bede believed st augustine s first cathedral had been repaired or recovered (recuperavit) existing roman church, when in fact had been newly constructed roman materials. belief christian church roman therefore masonry church roman building .

the building of churches in anglo-saxon england began augustine of canterbury in kent following 597; imported workmen frankish gaul. cathedral , abbey in canterbury, churches in kent @ minster in sheppey (c.664) , reculver (669), , in essex @ chapel of st peter-on-the-wall @ bradwell-on-sea, define earliest type in southeast england. simple nave without aisles provided setting main altar; east of chancel arch separated off apse use clergy. flanking apse , east end of nave side chambers serving sacristies; further porticus might continue along nave provide burials , other purposes. in northumbria development of christianity influenced irish mission, important churches being built in timber. masonry churches became prominent late 7th century foundations of wilfrid @ ripon , hexham, , of benedict biscop @ monkwearmouth-jarrow. these buildings had long naves , small rectangular chancels; porticus surrounded naves. elaborate crypts feature of wilfrid s buildings. best preserved northumbrian church escomb church.

from mid-8th century mid-10th number of important buildings survive. 1 group comprises first evidenced aisled churches: brixworth, ambitious anglo-saxon church survive largely intact, wareham st mary s, , cirencester; rebuilding of canterbury cathedral. these buildings may compared aisled churches in carolingian empire. other lesser churches may dated late eighth , ninth centuries on basis of elaborate sculptured decoration , have simple naves side porticus. tower of barnack (near peterborough) takes picture forward west saxon reconquest in 10th century, when decorative features characteristic of late anglo-saxon architecture developed, such narrow raised bands of stone ( pilaster strips ) surround archways , articulate wall surfaces, @ barton-upon-humber , earls barton. in plan, however, churches remained conservative.

from, monastic revival of second half of tenth century few documented buildings survive or have been excavated, example: abbeys of glastonbury; old minster, winchester; romsey; cholsey; , peterborough cathedral. majority of churches have been described anglo-saxon fall period between late 10th century , 12th. during period many settlements first provided stone churches, timber continued used; best wooden survival greensted church in essex, no earlier 9th century, , no doubt typical of many parish churches. on continent during eleventh century developed group of interrelated romanesque styles, associated rebuilding of many churches on grand scale, made possible general advance in architectural technology , mason-craft.

the first romanesque church in england edward confessor s rebuilding of westminster abbey (c.1050s , following), while main development of style followed norman conquest. however, @ stow minster crossing piers of 1050s proto-romanesque . more decorative interpretation of romanesque in lesser churches can dated somewhere between mid , late 11th century, e.g. hadstock (essex), clayton , sompting (sussex); style continued towards end of century @ milborne port (somerset). @ st augustine s abbey in canterbury c.1048–61 abbot wulfric aimed retain earlier churches while linking them octagonal rotunda: concept still pre-romanesque. anglo-saxon churches of periods have been embellished range of arts, including wall-paintings, stained glass, metalwork , statues.

art

early anglo-saxon art, survives, seen in decorated jewellery, brooches, buckles, beads , wrist-clasps, of outstanding quality. characteristic of 5th century quoit brooch motifs based on crouching animals, seen on silver quoit brooch sarre, kent. while origins of style disputed, either offshoot of provincial roman art, frank, or jute art. 1 style flourished late 5th century, , continued throughout 6th, , on many square-headed brooches, characterised chip-carved patterns based on animals , masks. different style, gradually superseded dominated serpentine beasts interlacing bodies.

shoulder clasp (closed) sutton hoo ship-burial 1, england. british museum.

by later 6th century best works south-east distinguished greater use of expensive materials, above gold , garnets, reflecting growing prosperity of more organised society had greater access imported precious materials, seen in buckle taplow burial , jewellery @ sutton hoo, c.600 , c.625 respectively. possible symbolism of decorative elements interlace , beast forms used in these works remains unclear, clear. these objects products of society invested modest surpluses in personal display, fostered craftsmen , jewellers of high standard, , society possession of fine brooch or buckle valuable status symbol , possible tribal emblem – in death as in life.

the staffordshire hoard largest hoard of anglo-saxon gold , silver metalwork yet found. discovered in field near village of hammerwich, near lichfield, in staffordshire, england, consists of on 3,500 items martial in character , contains no objects specific female uses. demonstrates considerable quantities of high-grade goldsmiths work in circulation among elite during 7th century. shows that, superb though individual pieces may in terms of craftsmanship, value of such items currency , potential roles tribute or spoils of war could, in warrior society, outweigh appreciation of integrity , artistry.

the coming of christianity revolutionised visual arts, other aspects of society. art had fulfil new functions, , whereas pagan art abstract, christianity required images representing subjects. transition between christian , pagan traditions apparent in 7th century works; examples include crundale buckle , canterbury pendant. in addition fostering metalworking skills, christianity stimulated stone sculpture , manuscript illumination. in these germanic motifs, such interlace , animal ornament along celtic spiral patterns, juxtaposed christian imagery , mediterranean decoration, notably vine-scroll. ruthwell cross, bewcastle cross , easby cross leading northumbrian examples of anglo-saxon version of celtic high cross, slimmer shaft.

the jamb of doorway @ monkwearmouth, carved pair of lacertine beasts, dates 680s; golden, garnet-adorned pectoral cross of st cuthbert presumably made before 687; while wooden inner coffin (incised christ , evangelists symbols, virgin , child, archangels , apostles), lindisfarne gospels, , codex amiatinus date c.700. fact these works northumbria might held reflect particular strength of church in kingdom during second half of century. works south more restrained in ornamentation northumbria.

lindisfarne important centre of book production, along ripon , monkwearmouth-jarrow. lindisfarne gospels might single beautiful book produced in middle ages, , echternach gospels , (probably) book of durrow other products of lindisfarne. latin gospel book, lindisfarne gospels richly illuminated , decorated in insular style blends not irish , western mediterranean elements but, incorporates imagery eastern mediterranean, including coptic christianity well. produced in north of england @ same time codex amiatinus, has been called finest book in world. 1 of largest, weighing 34 kilograms. pandect, rare in middle ages: books of bible in 1 volume. codex amiatinus produced @ monkwearmouth-jarrow in 692 under direction of abbot ceolfrith. bede had it. production of codex shows riches of north of england @ time. have records of monastery needing new grant of land raise 2 thousand more cattle calf skins make vellum make manuscript. codex amiatinus meant gift pope, , ceolfrith taking rome when died on way. copy ended in florence, still today – ninth-century copy of book today personal bible of pope.

book of cerne, evangelist portrait of saint mark

in 8th century, anglo-saxon christian art flourished grand decorated manuscripts , sculptures, along secular works bear comparable ornament, witham pins , coppergate helmet. flourishing of sculpture in mercia, occurred later in northumbria , dated second half of 8th century. fine decorated southern books, above bible fragment, can securely assigned earlier 9th century, owing similarity of script of charters period; book of cerne 9th century insular or anglo-saxon latin personal prayer book old english components. manuscript decorated , embellished 4 painted full-page miniatures, major , minor letters, continuing panels, , litterae notibiliores. further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such hunched, triangular beasts, appear on objects trewhiddle hoard (buried in 870s) , on rings bear names of king Æthelwulf , queen Æthelswith, centre of small corpus of fine ninth-century metalwork.

there demonstrable continuity in south, though danish settlement represented watershed in england s artistic tradition. wars , pillaging removed or destroyed anglo-saxon art, while settlement introduced new scandinavian craftsmen , patrons. result accentuate pre-existing distinction between art of north , of south. in 10th , 11th centuries, viking dominated areas characterised stone sculpture in anglo-saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, , distinctive anglo-scandinavian monument, hogback tomb, produced. decorative motifs used on these northern carvings (as on items of personal adornment or everyday use) echo scandinavian styles. wessexan hegemony , monastic reform movement appear have been catalysts rebirth of art in southern england end of 9th century. here artists responded continental art; foliage supplanting interlace preferred decorative motif. key works alfred jewel, has fleshy leaves engraved on plate; , stole , maniples of bishop frithestan of winchester, ornamented acanthus leaves, alongside figures bear stamp of byzantine art. surviving evidence points winchester , canterbury leading centres of manuscript art in second half of 10th century: developed colourful paintings lavish foliate borders, , coloured line drawings.

by 11th century, these 2 traditions had fused , had spread other centres. though manuscripts dominate corpus, sufficient architectural sculpture, ivory carving , metalwork survives show same styles current in secular art, , became widespread in south @ parochial level. wealth of england in later tenth , eleventh century reflected in lavish use of gold in manuscript art vessels, textiles , statues (now known descriptions). admired, southern english art highly influential in normandy, france , flanders c.1000. indeed, keen possess it, or recover materials, normans appropriated in large quantities in wake of conquest. bayeux tapestry, designed canterbury artist bishop odo of bayeux, arguably swansong of anglo-saxon art. surveying 600 years of continuous change, 3 common strands stand out: lavish colour , rich materials; interplay between abstract ornament , representational subject matter; , fusion of art styles reflects england linked in 11th century.

language


the first lines of poem, wanderer

old english (Ænglisc, anglisc, englisc) or anglo-saxon form of english language spoken , written anglo-saxons , descendants in parts of england , southern , eastern scotland between @ least mid-5th century , mid-12th century. old english west germanic language closely related old frisian , old saxon. had grammar similar in many ways classical latin. in respects, including grammar, closer modern german , icelandic modern english. inflected 5 grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, , instrumental), 3 grammatical numbers (singular, plural, , dual) , 3 grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, , neuter). dual forms occurred in first , second persons , referred groups of two.

some of characteristics of language were: adjectives, pronouns , (sometimes) participles agreed antecedent nouns in case, number , gender; finite verbs agreed subject in person , number; , nouns came in numerous declensions (with deep parallels in latin, ancient greek , sanskrit). verbs came in 9 main conjugations (seven strong , 2 weak), each numerous subtypes, few additional smaller conjugations , handful of irregular verbs. main difference other ancient indo-european languages, such latin, verbs can conjugated in 2 tenses (vs. 6 tenses  – tense/aspect combinations – of latin), , have no synthetic passive voice (although did still exist in gothic). gender in nouns grammatical, opposed natural gender prevails in modern english.

many linguists believe old english received little influence local insular languages common brittonic (the language may have been majority language in lowland britain). linguists such richard coates have suggested there not have been meaningful contact between languages, reasonable argued small amount of loanwords. number of linguists have argued many of grammar changes observed in english due brythonic influence. john mcwhorter suggests language changes seen later in english there in vernacular speech , not written, since did writing educated individuals spoke standard form of old english. speech of illiterate ceorl, on other hand, can not reconstructed. progressive nature of language acquisition, , retrospective reworking of kinship ties dominant group led, ultimately, myths tied entire society immigration explanation of origins in britain .

what survives through writing represents register of anglo-saxon, , in west saxon dialect. little known everyday spoken language of people living in migration period. old english contact language , hard reconstruct pidgin used in period written language found in west saxon literature of 400 years later. 2 general theories proposed regarding why people changed language old english (or form of such): either, person or household changed serve elite; or, person or household changed through choice provided advantage economically or legally. on time, old english developed 4 major dialects: northumbrian, spoken north of river humber; mercian, spoken in midlands; kentish, spoken in kent in far southeastern part of island; , west saxon, spoken in southwest. of these dialects have direct descendants in modern england, , american regional dialects have roots in dialects of old english. standard modern english (if there such thing), or @ least modern english spelling, owes anglian dialect, since dialect of london.

near end of old english period english language underwent third foreign influence, namely scandinavian influence of old norse. in addition great many place names, these consist of items of basic vocabulary, , words concerned particular administrative aspects of danelaw (that is, area of land under viking control, included extensive holdings along eastern coast of england , scotland). scandinavians spoke old norse, language related old english in both derived same ancestral proto-germanic language. common intermixing of speakers of different dialects, such occur during times of political unrest, result in mixed language, , 1 theory holds such mixture of old norse , old english thought have accelerated decline of case endings in old english. influence of old norse on lexicon of english language has been profound: responsible such basic vocabulary items sky, leg, pronoun , hundreds of other words.

nick highham has provided summary of importance of language anglo-saxon culture:

as bede later implied, language key indicator of ethnicity in england. in circumstances freedom @ law, acceptance kindred, access patronage, , use of possession of weapons exclusive claim germanic descent, speaking old english without latin or brittonic inflection had considerable value.

kinship

helena hamerow has made observation in anglo-saxon society local , extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production throughout anglo-saxon period . local , extended kin groups key aspect of anglo-saxon culture. kinship fueled societal advantages, freedom , relationships elite, allowed anglo-saxons culture , language flourish.

the ties of loyalty lord, person of lord, not station; there no real concept of patriotism or loyalty cause. explains why dynasties waxed , waned quickly, kingdom strong leader-king. there no underlying administration or bureaucracy maintain gains beyond lifetime of leader. example of leadership of rædwald of east anglia , how east anglian primacy did not survive death. kings not, except in exceptional circumstances, make new laws. role instead uphold , clarify previous custom , assure subjects uphold ancient privileges, laws, , customs. although person of king leader exalted, office of kingship not in sense powerful or invested authority become. 1 of tools kings used tie closely new christian church; through practice of having church leader anoint , crown king; god , king joined in peoples minds.

the ties of kinship meant relatives of murdered person obliged exact vengeance or death. led bloody , extensive feuds. way out of deadly , futile custom system of wergilds instituted. wergild set monetary value on each person s life according wealth , social status. value used set fine payable if person injured or offended against. robbing thane called higher penalty robbing ceorl. on other hand, thane thieved pay higher fine ceorl did likewise. men willing die lord , support comitatus ; warrior band. evidence of behavior (though may more literary ideal actual social practice), can observed in story, made famous in anglo-saxon chronicle entry 755, of cynewulf , cyneheard, in followers of defeated king decided fight death rather reconciled after death of lord.

this emphasis on social standing affected parts of anglo-saxon world. courts, example did not attempt discover facts in case; instead, in dispute each party many people possible swear rightness of case; oath-swearing . word of thane counted of 6 ceorls. assumed person of character able find enough people swear innocence case prosper. anglo-saxon society decidedly patriarchal, women in ways better off in later times. woman own property in own right. , did rule kingdom if husband died. not married without consent , personal goods, including lands, brought marriage remained own property. if injured or abused in marriage relatives expected after interests.

law


the initial page of rochester cathedral library, ms a.3.5, textus roffensis, contains surviving copy of Æthelberht s laws.

the noticeable feature of anglo-saxon legal system apparent prevalence of legislation in form of law codes. anglo-saxons organised in various small kingdoms corresponding later shires or counties. kings of these small kingdoms issued written laws, 1 of earliest of attributed ethelbert, king of kent, ca.560–616. anglo-saxon law codes follow pattern found in continental europe other groups of former roman empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law , hastened display claims of own native traditions reducing them writing. these legal systems should not thought of operating modern legislation, rather educational , political tools designed demonstrate standards of conduct rather act criteria subsequent legal judgment.

although not sources of law, anglo-saxon charters valuable historical source tracing actual legal practices of various anglo-saxon communities. charter written document king or other authority confirming grant either of land or other valuable right. prevalence in anglo-saxon state sign of sophistication. appealed , relied upon in litigation. making grants , confirming made others major way in anglo-saxon kings demonstrated authority.

the royal council or witan played central limited role in anglo-saxon period. main feature of system high degree of decentralisation. interference king through granting of charters , activity of witan in litigation exceptions rather rule in anglo-saxon times. important court in later anglo-saxon period shire court. of interest many shires (such kent , sussex) in days of anglo-saxon settlement centre of small independent kingdoms. kings first of mercia , of wessex extended authority on whole of england left shire courts overall responsibility administration of law. shire met in 1 or more traditional places, earlier in open air , later in moot or meeting hall. meeting of shire court presided on officer, shire reeve or sheriff, appointment came in later anglo-saxon times hands of king had in earlier times been elective. sheriff not judge of court, merely president. judges of court had right , duty of attending court, suitors. these free male inhabitants of neighbourhood but, on time, suit of court became obligation attached particular holdings of land. sessions of shire court resembled more closely of modern local administrative body modern court. , did act judicially not prime function. in shire court, charters , writs read out hear.

below level of shire each county divided areas known hundreds (or wapentakes in north of england). these original groups of families rather geographical areas. hundred court smaller version of shire, presided on hundred bailiff, formerly sheriff s appointment, on years many hundreds fell private hands of local large landowner. not well-informed hundred court business, must have been mix of administrative , judicial, remained in areas important forum settlement of local disputes post-conquest period. anglo-saxon system put emphasis upon compromise , arbitration: litigating parties enjoined settle differences if @ possible. if persisted in bringing case decision before shire court determined there. suitors of court pronounce judgment fixed how case decided: legal problems considered complex , difficult mere human decision , proof or demonstration of right depend upon irrational, non-human criterion. normal methods of proof oath-helping or ordeal.

oath-helping involved party undergoing proof swearing truth of claim or denial , having oath reinforced 5 or more others, chosen either party or court. numbers of helpers required , form of oath differed place place , upon nature of dispute. if either party or of helpers failed in oath, either refusing take or making error in required formula, proof failed , case adjudged other side. appears surprising moderns important matter might settled 1 , friends falsely swearing oath. in society in each known neighbour , in religious emphasis placed upon sanctity of oath, system more satisfactory. wager of law remained way of determining cases in common law until abolition in 19th century.

the ordeal offered alternative unable or unwilling swear oath. 2 common methods ordeal hot iron , cold water. former consisted in carrying red-hot iron 5 paces: wound bound , if, on unbinding, found festering case lost. in ordeal water victim, accused person, cast bound water: if sunk innocent, if floated, guilty. although perhaps understandable reasons ordeals became associated trials in criminal matters in essence tests of truth of claim or denial of party , appropriate trying legal issue. allocation of mode of proof , should bear substance of shire court s judgment or doom , perhaps followed known customary rules of have no knowledge. measure of discretion must have existed in determining of outcome of ordeal hot iron result of cold water , oath-helping have been obvious all.

literature


first page of epic beowulf

old english literary works include genres such epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, bible translations, legal works, chronicles, anglo-saxon chronicle, riddles , others. in there 400 surviving manuscripts period, significant corpus of both popular interest , specialist research. manuscripts use modified roman alphabet, anglo-saxon runes or futhorc used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, mixed roman letters.

this literature remarkable being in vernacular (old english) in medieval period: other written literature in latin @ time, due alfred s programme of vernacular literacy, oral traditions of anglo-saxon england ended being converted writing , preserved. owe of preservation monks of tenth century, made – @ least – copies of of literary manuscripts still exist. manuscripts not common items. expensive , hard make. first, cows or sheep had slaughtered , skins tanned. people had decide use leather manuscripts rather of other things leather can used for. leather scraped, stretched, , cut sheets, sewn books. inks had made oak galls , other ingredients, , books had hand written monks using quill pens. every manuscript different every other one, if copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting , made different errors. can identify individual scribes handwriting, , can guess manuscripts written because different scriptoria (centres of manuscript production) wrote in different styles of hand.

there 4 great poetic codices of old english poetry (a codex book in modern format, opposed scroll): junius manuscript, vercelli book, exeter book, , nowell codex or beowulf manuscript; of well-known lyric poems such wanderer, seafarer, deor , ruin found in exeter book, while vercelli book has dream of rood, of carved on ruthwell cross. franks casket has carved riddles, popular form anglo-saxons. old english secular poetry characterized gloomy , introspective cast of mind, , grim determination found in battle of maldon, recounting action against vikings in 991. book lost in cotton library fire of 1731, had been transcribed previously.

rather being organized around rhyme, poetic line in anglo-saxon organised around alliteration, repetition of stressed sounds, repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, used. anglo-saxon lines made of 2 half-lines (in old-fashioned scholarship, these called hemistiches) divided breath-pause or caesura. there must @ least 1 of alliterating sounds on each side of caesura.

hreran mid hondum    hrimcealde sæ

the line above illustrates principle: note there natural pause after hondum , first stressed syllable after pause begins same sound stressed line first half-line (the first halfline called a-verse , second b-verse).

there strong evidence anglo-saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but, keeping cultural practices have seen elsewhere in anglo-saxon culture, there blending between tradition , new learning. while old english poetry has common features, can identify 3 strands: religious poetry, includes poems christian topics, such cross , saints; heroic or epic poetry, such beowulf, heroes, warfare, monsters, , germanic past; , poetry smaller topics, including introspective poems (the so-called elegies), wisdom poems (which communicate both traditional , christian wisdom), , riddles. long time anglo-saxon poetry divided 3 groups: cædmonian (the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, , cynewulfian, named after cynewulf, 1 of named poets in anglo-saxon.the famous works period include epic poem beowulf, has achieved national epic status in britain.

there 30,000 surviving lines of old english poetry , ten times prose, , majority of both religious. prose influential , important anglo-saxons , more important poetry came after anglo-saxons. homilies sermons, lessons given on moral , doctrinal matters, , 2 prolific , respected writers of anglo-saxon prose, Ælfric , wulfstan, both homilists. Ælfric wrote lives of saints popular , highly prized. surviving poetry found in 1 manuscript copy, there number of different versions of prose works, anglo-saxon chronicle, apparently promulgated monasteries royal court. anglo-saxon clergy continued write in latin, language of bede s works, monastic chronicles, , theological writing, although bede s biographer records familiar old english poetry , gives 5 line lyric either wrote or liked quote – sense unclear.

symbolism

symbolism essential element anglo-saxon culture. julian d. richards suggested in societies strong oral traditions, material culture used store , pass on information , stand instead of literature in cultures. symbolism less logical literature , more difficult read. anglo-saxons used symbolism, not communicate, tools aid thinking world. symbols used change world, anglo-saxons used symbols differentiate between groups , people, status , role in society.

the visual riddles , ambiguities of anglo-saxon animal art, example has been seen emphasing protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour , horse equipment, , evocation of pre-christian mythological themes. howard williams , ruth nugent have suggest number of artefact categories have animals or eyes; pots combs, buckets weaponry make artefacts see impressing , punching circular , lentoid shapes onto them. symbolism of making object seems more decoration.

conventional interpretations of symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) , social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). there multiplicity of messages , variability of meanings characterised deposition of objects in anglo-saxon graves. in anglo-saxon cemeteries, 47% of male adults , 9% of juveniles buried weapons, of young. proportion of adult weapon burials high suggest represent social élite. usual assumption these warrior burials , , term used throughout archaeological , historical literature. however, systematic comparison of burials , without weapons, using archaeological , skeletal data, suggests assumption simplistic , misleading. anglo-saxon weapon burial rite involved complex ritual symbolism: multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, , age groups. symbol continued until c.700 when ceased have symbolic power had before. heinrich härke suggests change due changing structure of society , in ethnicity , assimilation implying lowering of ethnic boundaries in anglo-saxon settlement areas of england, towards common culture.

the word bead comes anglo saxon words bidden (to pray) , bede (prayer). vast majority of anglo-saxon female graves contain beads, found in large numbers in area of neck , chest. beads found in male burials, large beads associated prestigious weapons. variety of materials other glass available anglo-saxon beads including; amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral , metal. these beads considered have social or ritual function. anglo-saxon glass beads show wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours , decorations. various studies have been carried out investigating distribution , chronological change of bead types. crystal beads appear on bead strings in pagan anglo-saxon period seems have gone through various changes in meaning in christian period, gale owen-crocker suggests linked symbolism of virgin mary, , hence intercession. john hines has suggested on 2000 different types of beads found @ lakenheath show beads symbolise identity, roles, status , micro cultures within tribal landscape of anglo-saxon world.

symbolism continued have hold on minds of anglo-saxon people christian eras. interiors of churches have glowed colour, , walls of halls painted decorative scenes imagination telling stories of monsters , heroes in poem beowulf. although nothing left of wall paintings, evidence of pictorial art found in bibles , psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. poem, dream of rood , example how symbolism of trees fused christian symbolism. richard north suggests sacrifice of tree in accordance pagan virtues , image of christ s death constructed in poem reference anglian ideology of world tree . north suggests author of dream of rood uses language of myth of ingui in order present passion newly christianized countrymen story native tradition . furthermore, tree s triumph on death celebrated adorning cross gold , jewels.

the distinctive feature of coinage of first half of 8th century portrayal of animals, extent found in no other european coinage of middle ages. animals, such lions or peacocks, have been known in england through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable objects. animals not merely illustrated out of interest in natural world. each imbued meanings , acted symbol have been understood @ time.

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