Hybridization of cultures: architecture and art Social and cultural exchange in Al-Andalus

moorish architecture of praying hall.



interior of synagogue.



a casket made of ivory carved decoration , engraved silver demonstrating traditional islamic art.

it important note distinction between islamic art , architecture not important since 2 tied together. muslim art limited, in sense, islamic religious dogmas frown upon glorification of human being or animals in form of art. muslim art tends avert depicting people or animals in art. art of al-andalus had distinctly arabic , islamic inspired flavor, , manifested in sculptures , mosaics, as, other artifacts served dual purpose besides of being aesthetically pleasing. made these works distinctly andalusian combination of various artistic elements catholic, classical roman, , byzantine artistic traditions. culmination of christian , moorish art culminated in 11th century. style became known mozarabic art. artistic style included ceramics incorporated mosaic works. included use of repetitive patterns revolving around flower-like designs within sculptures , crafted works. moorish ivory caskets in al-andalus showed signs of western influences. depicted individual people , human forms, element not typical in islamic art. visigothic tradition had influence on rulers of cordoba adopted crowns in style of worn visigothic kings. many of these artistic elements incorporated architectural works, reflected muslim rulers’ desire associate ancestral roots in middle east, , indeed assert arabic heritage, though many of these rulers hybrids in terms of genealogy. indicative of multi-cultural influences culminated in unique architectural style of al-andalus. 1 famous example illustrates desire of muslim rulers’ tie ancestral homeland, while @ same inadvertently reflecting multiculturalism, great mosque of cordoba. construction began under reign of abd ar-rahman in 784 ad , completed in 987 ad. built in part demonstrate linkage between al-andalus , ancestral land of arabs in syria. great mosque of cordoba’s architectural layout , style shares many similarities great mosque of damascus (completed 715). share many of same features prayer halls, high ceilings held double-tiered arcades on columns, , many mosaics. 2 share similar foundation myths, further points muslim attempts in al-andalus reconnect nostalgic sense of homeland.despite these similarities, mosque not purely arabic in style. combination of roman, byzantine, , visigothic architectural elements. capitals , column closely emulate older visigothic , roman building found throughout city of cordoba. red , white colored arches reminiscent of roman aqueduct of merida. mosaics themselves, although connected @ great mosques of damascus, hybrid of christian , arabic influence. artisans produced these mosaics, both @ great mosque , @ cordoban palace estate al-rustafa, called byzantium. example of cultural exchange within architecture illustrated medina azahara, meaning beautiful city, on outskirts of cordoba started in 996 ad, abd-ar-raham iii al-nasir, served capital of iberian caliphate. roman influences can seen throughout incorporation of old roman statue of goddess present in gardens of building. feminine form appeared along various gates city. capitals , columns of palace in style of christian cathedrals, while byzantine influence seen throughout construction of palace. byzantium artisans believed have come teach these techniques andalusian artisans. of original byzantium artisans remained in al-andalus , became integrated andalusian society. likewise, christians , jews adopted arabic architectural elements own churches , synagogues built under moorish rule. became known mozarabic style. mozarabic architecture included absence of exterior decoration, diversity of floor plans, use of horseshoe arch in islamic style, , use of column support, capital decorated vegetable elements. moorish styled architecture continued popular long after muslim rule pushed out of spain reconquista. many christian cathedrals built in moorish architectural style. jewish synagogues, sinagoga del transito in toledo (built between 1357–1363), built in moorish style. spanish-moorish artistic style exemplified sinagoga del transito became known mudejar style. overall, architecture of al-andalus reflective of cultural exchange took place between christian , arabic architectural styles, latter being representative of need of muslims leaders form connectedness ancestral homelands.

language , literature

manuscript page maimonides, 1 of greatest jewish scholars of al andalus, born in córdoba. arabic language in hebrew letters



the first arabic numerals in west.

much art , architecture, language , literature best understood evolving through hybridization process, in context of al-andalus. important note language , literature had huge impact on ideas flowed areas of study, briefly touched on in section. muslim invasion of iberia brought [universal education], in turn raised literacy rates, compared rest of christian europe @ time, although rural areas still had lower literacy rates. literature of al-andalus represents combination of arabic, christian, , jewish styles, fused on time under caliphate of cordoba. arabic tradition in al-andalus has roots in qur’an , in arabic poems. these poems tended have both religious , secular subject matter. of these poems contained secular themes , love stories later influential iberian literature. 9th century these poems became lyrical , musical in nature. these types of musical poems became known muwashshahs. muslims introduced translations of ancient greek , roman works had been lost during dark ages. muslim invaders declared arabic official language of al-andalus, arabic used small minority within region. variations of romance dialects persisted in many areas , dialect varied area area no clear boundaries. these romance languages fused arabic , elements of hebrew form mozarabic dialect, became influential in literature produced in geographic area. later dispersion of mozarabs across iberian peninsula explains why many of words in modern-day spanish, portuguese, , catalan derived these mozarabic romance dialects. must stressed no standard language existed on iberian peninsula whole, or in al-andalus itself, @ time style took shape. newly formed mozarabic style first appeared in literature in kharjas or choruses of muwashshahs. these kharjas written in arabic or hebrew, appeared in vernacular mozarabic. style literal mixture of phrases iberian vernacular, hebrew, , arabic not uncommon in kharjas. kharjas of great importance iberian literary , linguistic tradition because represent hybridization of christian , classical tradition of having repetitive choruses found in earlier lyric poems, hebrew , arabic tradition emphasized love , everyday struggles of life. combination important linguistic development vernacular romance languages began adopt , alter arabic or hebrew words found in kharjas. evolution of mozarabic style in language , literature perpetuated has come called golden age of jewish culture in spain. dates so-called golden age disputed although correspond beginning of caliphate of cordoba, entering decline under almoravid rule, , being put end under almohad rule. jewish authors living in al-andalus became inspired influx of ideas came wealth of literature. literature represented both translation of classical greek , roman works under rulers al-hakam ii, had been lost europeans previous muslim invasion, , coming of christian , arab ideas entirely new works. muslim universities, libraries, courts, , degree christian monasteries hubs literature, former hubs hybridization of literature , of ideas. foreigners across europe , middle east came these universities in al-andalus, contributing own ideas, , translating many of works in al-andalus upon return home. result of literary exchange, wealth of new literature on subject of theology, philosophy, science, , mathematics produced during time. works of jewish philosopher , theologian maimonides, muslim polymath ibn rushd(averroes), muslim physician abulcasis, jewish scholar , physician hasdai ibn shaprut, direct products of cultural exchange manifested through literature. ideas immortalized through literature, novelist ibn tufail work inspired john locke’s theory of tabula rasa, produced far reaching waves.both jewish , christian scholars adopted arabic language of choice academic purposes. jewish poet moses ben jacob ibn ezra, , christian bishop recemundus both bilingual, latter writing arabic-christian liturgical calendar. literary development continued under almoravids, although gradual decline occurred result of stricter enforcement of islamic laws. under almohads, progressive development of literature, started under caliphate of cordoba, ceased, almohads censuring works considered undermine authority of qur’an. scholars, maimonides, persecuted , forced flee. eventual expulsion of almohads, resulted christian reconquista, saw re-emergence of literary works produced under caliphate of cordoba. christian kingdoms of iberia attempted uphold beacon of literary tradition translation of many arabic , hebrew works latin , later vernacular (see toledo school of translators).