Life and society Anglo-Saxons

1 life , society

1.1 kingship , kingdoms
1.2 religion , church
1.3 fighting , warfare
1.4 settlements , working life
1.5 women, children , slaves

life , society

the larger narrative, seen in history of anglo-saxon england, continued mixing , integration of various disparate elements 1 anglo-saxon people. outcome of mixing , integration continuous re-interpretation anglo-saxons of society , worldview, heinreich härke calls complex , ethnically mixed society .

kingship , kingdoms

anglo-saxon king witan. biblical scene in illustrated old english hexateuch (11th century)

the development of anglo-saxon kingship little understood model proposed yorke, considered development of kingdoms , writing down of oral law-codes linked progression towards leaders providing mund , receiving recognition. these leaders developed in sixth century, able seize initiative , establish position of power , successors. anglo-saxon leaders, unable tax , coerce followers instead extracted surplus raiding , collecting food renders , prestige goods . later sixth century saw end of prestige goods economy, evidenced decline of accompanied burial, , appearance of first princely graves , high-status settlements. these centres of trade , production reflect increased socio-political stratification , wider territorial authority allowed seventh-century elites extract , redistribute surpluses far greater effectiveness sixth-century predecessors have found possible. anglo-saxon society, in short, looked different in 600 did hundred years earlier.

by 600, establishment of first anglo-saxon emporia in prospect. there seem have been on thirty of such units, many of controlled kings, in parts of britain anglo-saxons controlled. bede s use of term imperium has been seen significant in defining status , powers of bretwaldas, in fact word bede used regularly alternative regnum; scholars believe meant collection of tribute. oswiu s extension of overlordship on picts , scots expressed in terms of making them tributary. military overlordship bring great short-term success , wealth, system had disadvantages. many of overlords enjoyed powers relatively short period. foundations had laid turn tribute-paying under-kingdom permanent acquisition, such bernician absorption of deira. smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once incorporated larger polities; on contrary territorial integrity preserved when became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within new kingdoms. obvious example of tendency later boundaries preserve earlier arrangements sussex; county boundary same of west saxon shire , anglo-saxon kingdom. witan, called witenagemot, council of kings; essential duty advise king on matters on chose ask opinion. attested grants of land churches or laymen, consented issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, , helped him deal rebels , persons suspected of disaffection.

by 800 5 anglo-saxon kingdoms known have been still in existence, , number of british kingdoms in west of country had disappeared well. major kingdoms had grown through absorbing smaller principalities , means through did , character kingdoms acquired result 1 of major themes of middle saxon period. beowulf, heroic content, makes point economic , military success intimately linked. king generous king through wealth won support ensure supremacy on other kingdoms. king alfred s digressions in translation of boethius consolation of philosophy, provided these observations resources every king needed:

in case of king, resources , tools rule have land manned: must have praying men, fighting men , working men. know without these tools no king may make ability known. aspect of resources must have means of support tools, 3 classes of men. these, then, means of support: land live on, gifts, weapons, food, ale, clothing , whatever else necessary each of 3 classes of men.

this first written appearance of division of society 3 orders ; working men provided raw materials support other 2 classes. advent of christianity saw introduction of new concepts of land tenure. role of churchmen analogous of warriors waging heavenly warfare. alfred alluding in order king fulfil responsibilities towards people, particularly concerned defence, had right make considerable exactions landowners , people of kingdom. need endow church resulted in permanent alienation of stocks of land had been granted out on temporary basis , introduced concept of new type of hereditary land freely alienated , free of family claims.

probably no 1 living in eighth century have predicted great mercian empire destroyed , west saxons poor track record feuds , infighting within royal house emerge dominant kingdom in ninth century. nobility under influence of alfred became involved developing cultural life of kingdom. kingdom became 1 brought monastic , spiritual life of kingdom under 1 rule , stricter control. anglo-saxons believed in luck random element in affairs of man , have agreed there limit extent 1 can understand why 1 kingdom failed while succeeded. believed in destiny , interpreted fate of kingdom of england biblical , carolingian ideology, parallels, between israelites, great european empires , anglo-saxons. danish , norman conquests manner in god punished sinful people , fate of great empires.

religion , church

the right half of front panel of seventh century franks casket, depicting pan-germanic legend of weyland smith weyland smith, apparently part of anglo-saxon pagan mythology.

the first of king alfred s three-fold anglo-saxon society praying men; people work @ prayer. although christianity dominates religious history of anglo-saxons, life in 5th/6th centuries dominated pagan religious beliefs scando-germanic heritage.

early anglo-saxon society attached great significance horse; horse may have been acquaintance of god wodan, and/or may have been (according tacitus) confidants of gods. horses closely associated gods, odin , freyr. horses played central role in funerary practices in other rituals. horses prominent symbols of fertility, , there many horse fertility cults. rituals associated these include horse fights, burials, consumption of horse meat, , horse sacrifice. hengist , horsa, mythical ancestors of anglo-saxons, associated horses, , references horses found throughout anglo-saxon literature. actual horse burials in england relatively rare , may point influence continent . well-known anglo-saxon horse burial (from sixth/seventh century) mound 17 @ sutton hoo, few yards more famous ship burial in mound 1. sixth-century grave near lakenheath, suffolk, yielded body of man next of complete horse in harness, bucket of food head. pagan anglo-saxons worshipped @ variety of different sites across landscape, of apparently specially built temples , others natural geographical features such sacred trees, hilltops or wells. according place name evidence, these sites of worship known alternately either hearg or wēoh. no poem before norman conquest, no matter how christian theme, not steeped in pagan symbolism , integration new faith goes beyond literary sources. thus, lethbridge reminds us, say, monument erected in christian times , therefore symbolism on must christian, unrealistic approach. rites of older faith, regarded superstition, practised on country today. did not mean people not christian; see lot of sense in old beliefs

bede s story of cædmon, cowherd became father of english poetry represents real heart of conversion of anglo-saxons paganism christianity. bede wrote, [t]here in monastery of abbess (streonæshalch – known whitby abbey) brother particularly remarkable grace of god, wont make religious verses, whatever interpreted him out of scripture, after put same poetical expressions of sweetness , humility in old english, native language. verse minds of many excited despise world, , aspire heaven. story of cædmon illustrates blending of christian , germanic, latin , oral tradition, monasteries , double monasteries, pre-existing customs , new learning, popular , elite, characterizes conversion period of anglo-saxon history , culture. cædmon not destroy or ignore traditional anglo-saxon poetry. instead, converts helps church. anglo-saxon england finds ways synthesize religion of church existing northern customs , practices. conversion of anglo-saxons not switching 1 practice another, making new out of old inheritance , new belief , learning.

an 8th-century copy of rule of st. benedict

monasticism, , not church, @ centre of anglo saxon christian life. western monasticism, whole, had been evolving since time of desert fathers, but, in seventh century, monasticism in england confronted dilemma brought question truest representation of christian faith. 2 monastic traditions celtic , roman, , decision made adopt roman tradition. monasteria seem describe religious congregations other of bishop.

in 10th century, dunstan brought athelwold glastonbury, 2 of them set monastery on benedictine lines. number of years monastery in england strictly followed benedictine rule , observed complete monastic discipline. mechthild gretsch calls aldhelm seminar developed @ glastonbury, , effects of seminar on curriculum of learning , study in anglo-saxon england enormous. royal power put behind reforming impulses of dunstan , athelwold, helping them enforce reform ideas. happened first @ old minster in winchester, before reformers built new foundations , refoundations @ thorney, peterborough, , ely, among other places. benedictine monasticism spread throughout england, these became centers of learning again, run people trained in glastonbury, 1 rule, works of aldhelm @ center of curricula influenced vernacular efforts of alfred. mixture sprung great flowering of literary production.

fighting , warfare

the second element of alfred s society fighting men. subject of war , anglo-saxons curiously neglected one, however, important element of anglo-saxon society.

firstly, mustering of armies. both offensive , defensive war, , whether armies consisted of household bands, seems have been characteristic of earlier period, or recruited on territorial basis, soldiers had summoned. mustering of army, annually @ times, occupied important place in frankish history, both military , constitutional. english kingdoms appear have known no institution similar this. earliest reference bede s account of overthrow of northumbrian Æthelfrith rædwald overlord of southern english. rædwald raised large army, presumably among kings accepted overlordship, , not giving him time summon , assemble whole army, rædwald met him greater force , slew him on mercian border on east bank of river idle . there more detailed account of raising army in 878, when danes made surprise attack on alfred @ chippenham after twelfth night. alfred retreated athelney after easter , 7 weeks after easter mustered army @ egbert s stone . not difficult imagine alfred sent out word ealdormen of somerset, wiltshire , hampshire, , reeves, call men arms. may explain delay, , no more coincidence army mustered @ beginning of may, time when there have been sufficient grass horses. there information mustering of fleets in eleventh century. 992 1066 fleets assembled @ london, or returned city @ end of service, on several occasions. took station depended on quarter threat expected: sandwich if invasion expected north, or isle of wight if normandy.

replica of sutton hoo helmet

once left home these armies , fleets had supplied, not food , clothing men forage horses gave them mobility , fitting station. yet if armies of seventh , eighth centuries accompanied servants , supply train of lesser free men, alfred found these arrangements insufficient defeat vikings. 1 of reforms, if responsible them, divide military resources three. 1 part manned burhs , found permanent garrisons make impossible danes overrun wessex, although take field when soldiers needed. remaining 2 take in turns serve. allocated fixed term of service , brought necessary provisions them. arrangement did not function perfectly. on 1 occasion division on service went home in middle of blockading danish army on thorney island, provisions consumed , term expired, before king came relieve them. method of division , rotation remained in force right 1066. in 917, when armies wessex , mercia in field april until november, 1 division went home , took over. again, in 1052 when edward s fleet waiting @ sandwich intercept godwine s return, ships returned london take on new earls , crews. importance of supply, vital military success, appreciated if taken granted , features incidentally in sources.

military training , strategy 2 important matters on sources more silent. there no references in literature or laws men training, , necessary fall on inference. noble warrior, childhood of first importance in learning both individual military skills , teamwork essential success in battle. perhaps games youthful cuthbert played ( wrestling, jumping, running, , every other exercise ) had military significance. turning strategy, of period before alfred evidence gives impression anglo-saxon armies fought battles frequently. if not solely due deficiencies of sources, make england special case. battle risky , best avoided unless factors on side. if in position advantageous willing take chance, enemy in such weak position avoid battle , pay tribute. unless, of course, bede s oswald , trusted in god. anyway, battle put princes lives @ risk, demonstrated northumbrian , mercian overlordships brought end defeat in field. gillingham has shown how few pitched battles successful charlemagne , richard chose fight.

a defensive strategy becomes more apparent in later part of alfred s reign. built around possession of fortified places , close pursuit of danes harass them , impede preferred occupation of plundering. alfred , lieutenants able fight danes standstill repeated ability pursue , closely besiege them in fortified camps @ nottingham, wareham, exeter, chippenham, rochester, milton, appledore, thorney, buttington, chester , hertford. in later part of edward elder s reign see type of war twelfth century soldier have recognised. in phase of war west saxons conquered land building , holding burhs threaten , dominate danish territory. fortification of sites @ witham, buckingham, towcester , colchester persuaded danes of surrounding regions submit. key warfare sieges , control of fortified places. clear new fortresses had permanent garrisons, , supported inhabitants of existing burhs when danger threatened. brought out in description of campaigns of 917 in chronicle, throughout conquest of danelaw edward , Æthelflæd clear sophisticated , coordinated strategy being applied.

there means of dealing military issues. in 973 single currency introduced england in order bring political unification, concentrating bullion production @ many coastal mints, new rulers of england created honey-pot attracted new wave of viking invasions, came close breaking kingdom of english. 980 onwards anglo -saxon chronicle records renewed raiding against england. @ first raids probing ventures small numbers of ships crews, grew in size , effect, until way of dealing vikings appeared to pay protection money buy them off: , in year [991] determined tribute should first paid danish men because of great terror causing along coast. first payment 10,000 pounds. payment of danegeld had underwritten huge balance of payments surplus; achieved stimulating exports , cutting imports, accomplished through currency devaluation. affected in kingdom.

settlements , working life

panorama of reconstructed 7th century village

the third aspect of alfred s society working man. helena hamerow suggest prevailing model of working life , settlement, particularly period, 1 of shifting settlement , building tribal kinship. mid-saxon period saw diversification, development of enclosures, beginning of toft system, closer management of livestock, gradual spread of mould-board plough, informally regular plots , greater permanence, further settlement consolidation thereafter foreshadowing post-conquest villages. later periods saw proliferation of service features including barns, mills , latrines, markedly on high-status sites. throughout anglo-saxon period helena hamerow suggests: local , extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production . noticeable in period. however, tenth , eleventh centuries, rise of manor , significance in terms of both settlement , management of land, becomes evident in domesday book.

the collection of buildings discovered @ yeavering, formed part of anglo-saxon royal vill or king s tun. these tun consisted of series of buildings designed provide short-term accommodation king , household. thought king have travelled throughout land dispensing justice , authority , collecting rents various estates. such visits periodic , visit each royal villa once or twice year. latin term villa regia bede used of site suggests estate centre functional heart of territory held in king s demesne. territory land surplus production taken centre food-render support king , retinue on periodic visits part of progress around kingdom. territorial model, known multiple estate or shire has been developed in range of studies , colm o brien, in applying yeavering has proposed geographical definition of wider shire of yeavering , geographical definition of principal estate structures hope-taylor excavated. 1 characteristic king s tun shared other groups of places point of public assembly. people came not give king , entourage board , lodging; attended upon king in order have disputes settled, cases appealed, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, , ambassadors heard , replied to. people assembled other reasons, such hold fairs , trade.

the first creations of towns linked system of specialism @ individual settlements, evidenced in studying place-names. sutterton, shoe-makers tun (in area of danelaw such places sutterby) so-named because local circumstances allowed growth of craft recognised people of surrounding places. sapperton, soap-makers tun. while boultham, meadow burdock plants , may have developed specialism in production of burrs wool-carding, since meadows burdock merely growing in them must have been relatively numerous. places named services or location within single district, category of obvious perhaps eastons , westons, possible move outwards glimpse component settlements within larger economic units. names betray role within system of seasonal pasture, winderton in warwickshire winter tun , various somertons self-explanatory. hardwicks dairy farms , swinhopes valleys pigs pastured.

settlement patterns village plans in england fall 2 great categories: scattered farms , homesteads in upland , woodland britain, nucleated villages across swathe of central england. chronology of nucleated villages debated , not yet clear. yet there strong evidence support view nucleation occurred in tenth century or perhaps ninth, , development parallel growth of towns.

women, children , slaves

alfred s view of society overlooks classes of people. main division in anglo-saxon society between slave , free. both groups hierarchically structured, several classes of freemen , many types of slaves. these varied @ different times , in different areas, prominent ranks within free society king, nobleman or thegn, , ordinary freeman or ceorl. differentiated value of wergild or man price , not amount payable in compensation homicide (see above, section 2), used basis other legal formulations such value of oath swear in court of law. slaves had no wergild, offences against them taken offences against owners, earliest laws set out detailed scale of penalties depending both on type of slave , rank of owner.

a amount of social mobility implied regulations detailing conditions under ceorl become thegn. again these have been subject local variation, 1 text refers possession of 5 hides of land (around 600 acres), bell , castle-gate, seat , special office in king s hall. in context of control of boroughs, frank stenton noted that, according 11th-century source, merchant had carried out 3 voyages @ own charge [had been] regarded of thegnly status. loss of status occur, penal slavery, imposed not on perpetrator of crime on wife , family. slaves may have been members of native british population conquered anglo-saxons when arrived continent; others may have been captured in wars between kingdoms, or have sold food in times of famine. however, slavery not permanent, , slaves had gained freedom become part of underclass of freedmen below rank of ceorl.

anglo-saxon women appear have enjoyed considerable independence, whether abbesses of great double monasteries of monks , nuns founded during seventh , eighth centuries, major land-holders recorded in domesday book (1086), or ordinary members of society. act principals in legal transactions, entitled same wergild men of same class, , considered oath-worthy , right defend on oath against false accusations or claims. sexual , other offences against them penalised heavily. there evidence married women own property independently, , surviving wills in joint names of husband , wife. marriage comprised contract between woman s family , prospective bridegroom, required pay bride-price in advance of wedding , morning gift following consummation. latter became woman s personal property, former may have been paid relatives, @ least during period. widows in particularly favourable position, inheritance rights, custody of children , authority on dependants. however, degree of vulnerability may reflected in laws stating should not forced nunneries or second marriages against will. system of primogeniture (inheritance first-born male) not introduced england until after norman conquest, anglo-saxon siblings — girls boys — more equal in terms of status. age of majority either ten or twelve, when child legally take charge of inherited property, or held responsible crime. common children fostered, either in other households or in monasteries, perhaps means of extending circle of protection beyond kin group. laws make provision orphaned children , foundlings.

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